Chapter 1: Introduction Integration – Complexity – Risk: the Making of Information Systems Out-of- Control

ICT has been closely related to risk throughout its history. One the one hand, ICT is essentially a control technology (Beniger 1986). It is a technology that helps us better predict and control complex processes in nature (develop new drugs, control nuclear power plants, weather forecast, etc.), society (production control systems, project management tools, etc.), and other technologies (intercontinental ballistic missiles, chemical plants, etc.). This also includes various risk prediction, calculation and management tools. But we have also experienced that ICT solutions have their own risks – risks related to ICT projects as well as systems failures. And a whole series of techniques and tools have been developed to help project managers control risks related to the development of ICT solutions as well as making them reliable by minimizing risks for systems failures. In spite of all research on ICT risks and the increased sophistication of the tools and techniques developed, ICT risks still prevail. In fact, there are indications that they are increasing rather than diminishing. This apparent paradox is what has motivated this book. Our interest in inquiring into it stems from two sources. The first is an observed growth in ICT complexity which increases and creates new challenges regarding management and control of the development and use of ICT solutions. The second is theoretical developments in other areas regarding risk. The most important source here is Ulrich Beck's (1986) theory of Risk Society which he later, together with Anthony Giddens, has elaborated further into a more general theory of globalization and modernity called Reflexive Modernization (Beck, Giddens, and